RAY GLEASON

The Roman legion (LEGIO, sing.; LEGIONES, pl.) was the largest formal military unit of the Roman army during Insubrecus’ time. Theoretically, the legion comprised part of a professional army and was composed of Roman citizens serving minimum six-year hitches. In late Republican and early principate times, a full-strength legion was comprised of 4,800 infantry and 300 cavalry. 

ORGANIZATION

THE INFANTRY was organized into ten cohorts (COHORS, sing.; COHORTES, pl.) of 480 legionaries; each cohort was organized into six centuries (CENTURIA, sing.; CENTURIAE, pl.) of eighty legionaries; each century had ten squads (CONTUBERNIUM, sing.; CONTUBERNIA, plur.) of eight legionaries.

• Eight Legionaries to one CONTUBERNIUM
• Ten CONTUBERNIA to one CENTURIA
• Six CENTURIAE to one COHORS
• Ten COHORTES to one LEGIO

Insubrecus says the legionary cohorts were designated in order of prestige based on their position in the basic legionary battle formation, the “Triple Battleline” (ACIES TRIPLEX) as first-line cohorts (COHORTES ACIEI PRIMAE – One through Four), second-line cohorts (COHORTES ACIEI SECUNDAE – Five through Seven); and third-line cohorts (COHORTES ACIEI TERTIAE – Eight through Ten). 

First-line cohorts were the front line of the legionary battle front; they took the most casualties, and Insubrecus claims the legionaries were granted pay at one-and-a-half the standard rate. 

The first cohort stood on the right flank of the legion’s front line, and its mission was to turn the enemy’s left flank in the attack giving the legionary cavalry an opening to get into the enemy’s rear. Members of the first cohort received double pay if they lived long enough to collect it.

Cohort ten was the home of the legionary IMMUNES, soldiers who were specialists and excused from fatigue details. These would be the legionary blacksmiths, carpenters, artillery men, engineering troops, etc. They may or may not be available for battleline duty. Also, according to Insubrecus, cohort ten was the training cohort, so training cadre, new officers, and recruits were assigned to it.

THE CAVALRY ALA, “wing,” was organized into ten squadrons (TURMA, sing.; TURMAE, plural) of thirty troopers each. Each TURMA had three squads of ten riders each. Since the cavalry of the early republican army was manned by citizens who could afford armor and a horse, the infantry in Caesar’s day still considered them a bunch of ponces. 

In Caesar’s legions, most legionary cavalry slots were filled by legionary grunts too banged up to march under full load, and who were trying to stay on the right side of their mounts, explaining their poor performance in battle. Caesar began outsourcing the cavalry to auxiliary units of non-citizens, especially the Gauls. 

The tradition of the legionary cavalry being the rich boys did survive in the designation of Roman societal classes; EQUITES, the “cavalry,” designated the Roman upper middle-class – guys who could afford to buy a horse or two. 

That’s the theory, or as the modern US Army would characterize it, the TOE of the legion.

VEXILLUM “Detachment.” The Latin word means “banner,” which was carried by a detachment. Detachments were formed on an as needed basis for various missions. VEXILLA were usually manned by formations from a legion or legions. The awarding of a pennant to the detachment removed the detachment from the normal legionary chain of command; it was an “independent command.” The commander of a large VEXILLUM would be designated PRAEFECTUS if he were from the centurion ranks. Assignment to a VEXILLUM was also a convenient way of getting an especially annoying broad-striper away from headquarters.

STRENGTH MANAGEMENT. Caesar’s legions were rarely up to strength. By the end of the campaign season, an individual legion may be down to sixty percent strength, if it survived at all. A legion that fell significantly below strength was considered not mission capable. 

According to Insubrecus’ journal, the ranks of the legion would be replenished in two main ways: recruitment and cross leveling.

RECRUITMENT was done by adding recruits, TIRONES, training them, and assigning them to second- and third-line cohorts, cohorts five through ten normally, unless a TIRO was like Insubrecus’ mate, Minutus, “Tiny,” as big as an aurochs, in which case he was moved up to the first battle line (The Helvetian Affair).

A legion could also be replenished through a special kind of recruit called an EVOCATUS. This was a retired legionary who was tired of trying to grow rocks on his retirement land allocation and longed for the old days of danger and adventure. The good news, these recruits were experienced soldiers; the other news was they were pushing forty. Look for the EVOCATI in the second- or third-line and among the IMMUNES re-stringing SCORPIONES and training the rookies. All EVOCATI were IMMUNES … part of the deal … no trench digging, no latrine duty, no guard duty, no roadbuilding.

CROSS LEVELING occurred at two levels: internal and external, as reported by Insubrecus. 

Internal cross leveling was accomplished by moving legionaries “up the line” from second- and third-line cohorts to the first-line cohorts (one through four). 

Also, key vacant positions would be filled by internal transfer and promotion; second- and third-line centurions would be promoted to first-line centuries; legionaries would be promoted to vacated officer slots, etc.

External cross leveling was accomplished by moving soldiers from up-to-strength legions to under-strength legions. This was usually accomplished by promoting the incoming soldiers by rank and by battle-line prestige. So, a soldier who was stuck as an optio in one legion could be promoted to centurion in another legion. Or a second line grunt could be assigned to a first-line cohort in another legion and get a fifty percent raise in pay.

The goal was to have all legions in Caesar’s command mission capable by the start of the campaign season.

Clothing and Equipment

According to Insubrecus, LEGIO X had a quartermaster supply operation that issued soldiers clothing and supply which was deducted from their pay. Since the army issued clothing as if it were fighting a war along the sunny Mediterranean, soldiers in Gaul often augmented their wardrobe from local sources. This also applied to weaponry – especially chainmail, helmets, and swords – since Gallic metal workers were typically superior to the Roman least-cost-senator’s-brother-in-law contractor used by the army.

Personal Clothing

TUNICA (TUNICAE, pl.) Legionaries wore a common Roman short-sleeved woolen tunic as an outer garment covering the upper body from the shoulders to a little above the knee. Cavalry troopers might wear a shorter tunic so the horse would fit. During the winter months “under the bear,” long sleeves were sown on to the tunic for warmth. According to Insubrecus, there was no standard color among the legions. Insubrecus’ LEGIO X wore a mud-red tunic in honor of Mars; recruits wore a white tunic until they completed basic training and were accepted into the legion (The Helvetian Affair); legionary medics were called “crows, CORICES, because they wore black or dark colored tunics while working in the field with the wounded and dead; Spina Medicus believed an undyed tunic had something to do with surviving wounds; legionary slaves wore undyed tunics. The ponces wore white tunics with a broad purple stripe to indicate a senatorial or a narrow purple stripe for an equestrian.

CALIGA (CALIGAE, pl.) This was the basic Roman combat boot. CALIGAE were heavy-duty, ankle-length, thick-soled, open sandal-boots, with hobnailed soles which Rhonwen insisted not be worn in her home. Insubrecus reports that in the colder climes, soldiers would switch to closed boots and woolen socks, UDONES.

CINGULUM (CINGULA, pl.), a legionary’s wide leather belt, often decorated with brass ornaments. The CINGULUM was one of the indicators that the wearer was a soldier, that along with the CALIGAE and the razor-sharp PUGIO, Roman carving knife, hanging from it.

SAGUM (SAGA, pl.). A cloak was made of thick wool, fastened in the front, and covering the soldier from shoulders to midcalf, back and front. These were not the capes that Hollywood loves; no legionary grunt in his right mind would go into combat with a cape on. The SAGUM could be closed by ties or by a FIBULA, a brooch worn near the shoulder. Again, there was no standard color for the SAGUM. Insubrecus reports that most cloaks were undyed. Some cloaks were hooded, a CUCULLUS; soldiers loved these on long guard shifts on cold, windy nights; the guard officer not so much because the hood restricted the soldier’s lines of sight and hearing, and they were an invitation to doze off. Cloaks were treated with wax and lanolin and served as raincoats. These were not quartermaster issue; a grunt had to buy one down in the VICUS.

BRACAE. “Trousers.” In Caesar’s time, these were considered INROMANITAS, “unroman,” “barbaric” by the nobs up from Rome! From a grunt’s point of view, if it helped staying warm, it was good. BRACAE came in wool or leather. They were worn under the TUNICA and tied at the waist; the legs extended either to mid-calf or to the top of the CALIGAE. Legionary recruits in Gaul adopted BRACAE during their first winter under the Eagle. In Caesar’s army, a good way of telling a veteran officer from a newbie was whether he was wearing BRACAE in IANUARIUS. May be where the term “blue ball” originated, but I doubt it. Definitely not quartermaster issue.

SUDARIUM (SUDARIA, pl.) or FOCALE (FOCALA, pl.) the legionary scarf and “sweat rag” was a woolen or linen scarf worn by military personnel. Its primary purpose was to protect a grunt’s neck from being pinched and chafed by his chainmail LORICA. In the winter, it kept cold air and snow from getting down into the LORICA. Wearing it around the neck made it handy for wiping sweat out of the eyes and blowing dust and other matter out of the nose when marching behind the baggage train.

SUBLIGACULUM. “Underwear”, Roman “tighty whities.” Usually in the form of a loincloth wrapped around the hips and between the legs.

SUBARMALIS (SUBARMALES, pl.) A padded jacket worn under a LORICA to cushion the weight and protect the shoulders against the rough surfaces of the chainmail. Some SUBARMALES had layers of PTERUGES, decorative leather strips, sown onto the sleeves; these rigs were normally worn by officers who had visited Honest Horatio’s military supply warehouse down in Rome before coming north and reporting for duty. Honest Horatio guarantees complete satisfaction or your money back if you get back. The grunts relied on the chainmail sleeves of their LORICAE for protection.

MANICA (MANICAE, pl) Gloves. These were fingerless mitten-like gloves made of wool, covered with linen and treated with wax and lanolin for waterproofing. They kept hands warm but were useless for handling weapons. Grunts learned to slice the MANICAE between the thumb and forefinger and sew up the edges so they could hold a PILA and SCUTUM while on guard.

INDIVIDUAL WEAPONS. These were carried by every legionary or cavalry trooper in the battle line

PUGIO (PUGIONES, pl.) The PUGIO is a large, leaf-shaped knife carried by every Roman soldier, sheathed and attached to the left side or center of his CINGULUM. The PUGIO was considered the personal property of the soldier; Insubrecus received his for his sixteenth birthday from his friend and mentor, Macro (The Gabinian Affair) and carried it until the end of his life. The PUGIO was considered a manly and noble weapon unlike the SICA which was used for backstabbing and throat cutting by lowlifes and Parthians.

GLADIUS (GLADII, pl.) This was the basic infantry short sword designed for stabbing from behind the SCUTUM. Every TYRO learns in basic training, as did Insubrecus, that a single thrust is worth a hundred slashes.

VAGINA (VAGINAE, pl.) Don’t get excited or offended; this is a leather scabbard for the GLADIUS, worn on the right hip of a grunt and on the left hip of a centurion. All Roman soldiers were trained to be right-handed, so they formed a uniform and consistent battle line. The GLADIUS was drawn behind the SCUTUM by grasping the hilt with the right hand, thumb down. The sword was drawn by lifting the elbow straight up, then pointed by bringing the elbow into the side and extending the arm. This method prevented the SCUTUM from interfering with the draw and did not expose the soldiers sword arm and hand to the enemy.

BALTEUS (BALTEI, pl) A baldric, the sword belt worn over the left shoulder and secured at the right hip under the CINGULUM to prevent the GLADIUS from getting hung up in the VAGINA. Control yourself!

SCUTUM (SCUTA, pl.) The infantry shield. Insubrecus reports that the SCUTUM was a long, convex, oval-shaped shield constructed of at least three layers of flat wooden boards glued together and coated with a leather skin. The SCUTUM was designed to cover the legionary’s body from side-to-side and from neck to knees. The SCUTUM was both a defensive and offensive weapon. In the defense, it covered the soldier’s body from swords, thrusting spears, javelins, sling bullets, rocks, fists … just about anything an enemy could thrust, throw, or spit. As an offensive weapon, the SCUTUM had an iron boss, UMBO, in the center, two or four metal spines radiating out from the boss, and metal reinforced edges. In basic training, Insubrecus was drilled in the PERCUSSUS, the “punch,” where the boss of the SCUTUM was smashed into an opponent’s face and the GLADIUS was thrust into his abdomen. The iron-reinforced edges were used against an opponent’s feet, shins, throat or face, while the GLADIUS finished the job. The SCUTUM could be held in two ways: first, the soldier could grasp a metal bar welded to the back of the boss with his left hand to execute the punching maneuvers; or the soldier could strap the SCUTUM onto his left forearm with leather straps in a defensive posture. The shape and uniformity of the SCUTUM allowed Roman formations to form the TESTUDO by overlapping their shields front, backs, sides and overhead to create a barrier against arrows, spears, and objects thrown by defenders on walls (The Helvetian Affair). The SCUTUM was painted in the legion’s color, usually bright red, and decorated in gold with Iove’s eagle and lightening bolts. Other markings could include the legion’s number, its totem animal, or its nickname. While on the march or when in storage, the SCUTUM was covered in a cured leather cover, TEGIMAN (TEGIMINA, pl) to protect it from the elements. A clean, unmarked shield was a sign of a rookie or a new legion that has yet to see the “elephant.” So, grunts were proud of a faded, battle-scarred SCUTUM.

PILUM (PILA, pl) These were the basic infantry spears, designed primarily for throwing but could also be used as thrusting spears in a pinch. Each legionary carried two PILA as a basic load. PILA were designed with two main components: a metal shaft and a wooden shaft. The metal shaft had a pyramidal tip to penetrate shield, armor and flesh; a weighted tip for momentum; and a neck of soft metal that bent on impact so the enemy couldn’t extract it from a shield or throw it back. The metal shaft was attached to the wooden shaft by a pin designed to break on impact so the enemy could not use the expended PILUM as a weapon. Some PILA were equipped with casting lines which allowed the thrower to spin the weapon for stability in flight. The basic infantry PILUM tactic was to launch volleys at the enemy at an optimum range of twenty to thirty paces to kill a bunch – especially the Celts who wore only tattoos to protect themselves – eliminate their shields, then charge in under the last PILA volley, hit the now shieldless enemy with the SCUTUM and finish the job with the GLADIUS (The Helvetian Affair). A savvy enemy, like the Nervii on the Sambre, would try to close with the Roman line before they could launch the PILA (Death on the Sambre). 

LORICA (LORICAE, pl) Upper body armor. Insubrecus reports that grunts wore a chainmail jacket over a SUBARMALIS jacket, shoulders to mid-thigh, fastened in the back. The cavalry guys wore shorter skirts or split the longer skirt to the waist front and back so they could fit a horse between their legs. Infantry guys wore chainmail shoulder pads strapped on top of the LORICA jacket because their enemies liked to slash downwards over the shield with long swords, falxes, and axes to wreck shields, split heads, and lop off arms. The cavalry guys didn’t use the shoulder pads because they added weight to the horse’s load and, since no one used stirrups, a downward sword-blow didn’t have much leverage. The chainmail was effective against slashing blows but not stabbing blows. It would stop arrows shot from long ranges or those with ill-fabricated heads (The Swabian Affair). It would stop a sling-bullet, but at the cost of a rib or two. A thrusting spear would cut through it like a hot knife through sheep fat. It would blunt a slashing blow from a long sword at the expense of a broken collar bone; with a FALX, all bets were off. In basic, Strabo taught Insubrecus to select his chainmail carefully – the more rings, the better protection; avoid LORICAE that showed signs of multiple repairs (The Helvetian Affair). The best chainmail could be purchased from Gallic fabricators, but most grunts couldn’t afford it. The nobs up from Rome like to show up for battle in highly polished muscled breastplates, referred to as “snob plates” by the grunts. These made a great show, identified the officers for enemy archers and slingers, and were not as effective as chainmail. Caesar preferred chainmail.

GALEA (GALEAE, pl). The infantry helmet. The Roman steel pot was in a conical shape with a raised central knob for a plume, a protruding neck guard, and cheek plates attached to the helmet by metal rings. The GALEA was secured by rawhide cords on the ear plates tied under the chin. Because of the Gallic and German manner of attack, a slashing blow over the SCUTUM with a long sword, the Romans began welding a reinforcement bar just over the eyes across the front of the GALEA, called SUPERCILLIA, “eyebrows,” by the grunts. Since GALEAE were manufactured, “one size fits all,” the grunts wore a woolen PILLEUS cap under the helmet and often stuffed them with straw to get a tight fit. During basic, Insubrecus was instructed to choose a GALEA carefully: steel, not bronze; no indications of repairs; even metal thickness. Despite that, Insubrecus’ GALEA was dented during the Battle of Bibracte when he was kicked in the head by Beorn, a treacherous German horse (The Helvetian Affair). His comrade in that battle, Athauhnu mab Hengerst, presented him with a GALEA of Gallic workmanship to replace his “Roman pisspot” (The Swabian Affair). Soldiers wore a CRISTA, a crest or plume of dyed horsehair on their GALEAE for parades, inspections, and often going into battle. LEGIO X wore bright red CRESTAE in honor of Mars. Centurions wore transverse CRESTAE, ear to ear. Ponces wore CRESTAE front to back.

OCREA (OCREAE, pl) Greaves, shin protectors, worn by centurions as a status symbol and by ponces for the same reason.

HASTA (HASTAE, pl) A heavy stabbing spear used in Insubrecus’ time by both infantry and cavalry. This was a remnant of the phalanx spear of the TRIARI in the manipular legion. The HASTA was heavier, thicker and longer than the PILUM and the cavalry LANCEA. Its main use for the infantry was receiving a cavalry charge; the cavalry used it as a lance but only over short distances. Insubrecus reports neither the infantry nor the cavalry liked to hump these things on the march due to the weight and awkwardness. The grunts packed a few on the mules, and the rest were back with the baggage train.

SPATHA (SPATHAE, pl.) A Roman long sword used principally by the cavalry. Mainly a slashing weapon because, as Insubrecus was trained and saw for himself in a cavalry skirmish after the relief of Bibrax, in a sword thrust the blade gets stuck and the horse doesn’t want to wait around (Boudica).

LANCEA (LANCEAE, pl.) A lance used by the cavalry principally as a thrusting weapon, but it could be also thrown as a javelin. Troopers were reluctant to throw the LANCEA because without stirrups they couldn’t get much power into the throw.

IACULUM (IACULA, pl.) A cavalry javelin; a light throwing spear used primarily by the cavalry. Insubrecus reports that legionaries detailed as VELITES, skirmishers, would use IACULA to harass the enemy. The javelins did little damage; the skirmishers were hoping to enrage the enemy into breaking their battle front in an ill-advised pursuit so the main Roman battle line could attack. 

PALMA (PALMAE pl.) A round shield used by the cavalry. Insubrecus dumps his for an oval Gallic shield to protect better his lower body. In his opinion, good for show, rotten for protection.

Ancillary Weapons.
A legion also carried specialized weapons. 

ARCUS (ARCI, pl.) A bow made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with glue. These of course launched SAGITTAE, arrows, with various heads. The purpose of the ARCI was to harass an enemy and incumber their shields. The practical effective range of the Roman ARCUS was about sixty paces. The main users of the ARCI were the VENATORES, the meat hunters. Insubrecus reports that the ECENI from BRITANNIA had a long bow that could penetrate shields and chainmail at over a hundred paces (Boudica). TIRONES received archery training in basic. Each CONTUBERNIUM carried a few ARCA and sheeves of SAGITTAE on its pack mule.

FUNDA (FUNDAE, pl.) A sling. A sling launched a projectile, a small, smooth stone or a cast clay or lead bullet; some sling-bullets were cast with holes so they would whistle in flight. The FUNDA consisted of two cords with small cradle in the center, where the bullet was placed. The end of one cord was attached to the wrist of the FUNDATOR, the slinger, while the other cord was held between the thumb and forefinger. The FUNDA was swung in an arc, giving off a telltale buzz like a swarm of angry bees, and the cord was released from between the fingers to launch the bullet towards a target. Romans did not consider the FUNDA a “noble” weapon; it was the “Saturday night special” of the ancient battlefield used by peasants, shepherds and bandits out in the boondocks. Despite the attitude, FUNDAE were deadly out to 400 paces in the hands of a skilled FUNDATOR. Strabo, Insubrecus’ training officer, was knocked unconscious by a sling-bullet hitting him on his helmet (The Helvetian Affair); Pollex, a DECURIO, was killed a sling-bullet to the face during the Belgian campaign (Boudica). FUNDATORES liked to etch snarky messages on their bullets; “EAT ME” was a favorite. A grunt might stash a sling and a sack of bullets in his pack.

TORQUETA, “Twisted Things.” Legionary artillery, so called because the weapons were powered by twisted coils of rope. These were crew-served weapons manned by IMMUNES assigned to CENTURIAE in COHORS X., whom Insubres says were called TORQUETORES, “The Twistors,” by the legionary grunts.

SCORPIO (SCORPIONES, pl.) An anti-personnel, tension-powered, large crossbow-like weapon that launched a powerful dart about 200 paces for point targets and 400 paces for “whomever-it-may-concern” targets. The weapon resembled a large crossbow with a stock and front sights. Each legion carried about sixty of these, and they were carried disassembled on the mules of the COHORS X gun crews. They were primarily defensive weapons emplaced with intersecting fields of fire. Typically, they covered the legionaries while digging the marching camps, and they were emplaced on the corner towers and gate towers of a camp. They could also be used offensively during a siege to pick enemy soldiers off the walls or placed in the battle line to support an attack. SCORPIONES were commonly mounted on Roman warships (The Undead Queen).

BALLISTA (BALLISTAE, pl). This was legion’s “medium artillery,” the “big brother” of the SCORPIO. The BALLISTA was a powerful bow-like weapon, that could launch both darts and stone projectiles of various sizes. They were used primarily in sieges. The BALLISTAE were constructed of wood reinforced with iron. The body of the weapon consisted of a center wooden beam. At the front end of the beam, a padded buffer was fixed. Two heavy bow limbs projected from each side of the beam which were threaded through tight coils of rope mounted on vertical spindles on each side of the beam. The ends of the bow limbs were connected by a heavy bow string with a seat in the center. In the rear of the center beam, was a crank winch with locking claws, to which the ends of the bow limbs were connected, and a sliding seat into which the projectiles were loaded. To operate, the ends of the bow limbs were winched back through the rope coils creating a great deal of tension and locked at the rear of the beam in a cocked position. The bow string was fitted behind the projectile seat, and the bow limbs were adjusted to create enough tension to lock the bowstring tightly behind the ammunition seat. A dart or a bullet was loaded into the projectile seat. A trigger was released, unlocking the winch and causing the bow limbs to spring forward driving the ammunition seat up the center beam to the padded buffer at the end of the beam. The ammunition seat propelled the ammunition load toward its target. The spindles holding the rope coils could be adjusted by tuning caps to ensure equal power was applied to each bow limb. The spindles could also be adjusted to accommodate stretching of the coils and weather conditions. The entire structure had to be positioned and secured to minimize movement during launch and recoil. Each BALLISTA was manned by a team of specialized artillery men from COHORS X. BALLISTAE were transported disassembled in the legion’s baggage train, so the legionaries who manned them were trained to assemble, calibrate, operate, and disassemble the weapon. The BALLISTORES were so proud of the system and their accuracy that, during the siege of Alesia, one crew bet Insubrecus a denarius they could pick a guy off the ramparts with a dart at 200 paces. Insubrecus was soon a denarius light.

ONAGER (ONAGRES, pl.) “The Kicking Mule.” This was a catapult like those portrayed in Hollywood Robin Hood flicks. They were the legion’s heavy, indirect-fire weapons used principally in siege operations. The ONAGER consisted of a large iron-reinforced, wooden frame fixed horizontally to the ground with a horizonal buffer frame of solid, heavily padded, iron-reinforced timber rigidly fixed to the front end of the frame. A horizontal tension spoke was attached mid-frame and passed through a heavy, tight rope coil. A vertical firing arm was fixed to the spoke. At the top of the firing arm, a seat for ammunition was fixed. In the “uncocked” position, the firing arm was held tightly against the front buffer frame by the tension spoke. There was a heavy winch in the rear with locking sprockets; the winch was connected to the firing arm by ropes. To “cock” the ONANGER, the firing arm was winched back into a horizontal position and locked into place. Ammunition was placed in the ammunition seat on the firing arm. The firing arm was released by a trigger causing it to fly forward until it was stopped by the front buffer beam, launching a projectile toward a target. The ONAGATORES could adjust range and trajectory by adjusting the ammunition seat. The impact of the firing arm against the buffer beam caused the ONAGER to buck, hence its name. Insubrecus reports that an ONAGER could launch a forty librae projectile over 350 paces. ONAGRES were not as accurate as BALLISTAE, but they were easier to manufacture, assemble, disassemble and maintain. However, they kicked so hard they could not be placed on a city wall for defensive work and, on the ground, they had to be resecured every few rounds depending on the consistency and condition of the soil affecting the rate of fire. During the siege of Carrhae, Longinus was able to shoot a Parthian noble off his horse with his SCORPIONES at more than 100 paces but had to emplace his ONANGRES behind the city walls (Death on the Sambre). 

IMPEDIMENTA. Load bearing equipment and the basic marching load. When Marius reformed the legion, he wanted the legion to move fast and be battle ready at all times. To do this, he had to make the infantry EXPEDENTA, independent of the baggage train, IMPEDIMENTA, which could move only at the pace of a burdened ox. The LEGIO was expected to march a minimum of 20,000 PASSUS by the eighth hour when it would dig and construct its marching camp and wait for the baggage to catch up … if it did at all. To accomplish this, Marius moved all the weapons and equipment that a LEGIO needed to dig in and fight from the baggage train onto the backs of the soldiers, who then called themselves MULI MARII, “Marius’ Mules.” Insubrecus reports that, when he joined the legions, the soldiers still referred to themselves as MULI, mules, the equivalent of the modern army term for infantry “grunts.”

FURCA (FURCAE, pl) “Little Fork.” Two poles tied together in the shape of a cross onto which a legionary tied his SARCINA, his marching load, over his right shoulder. The FURCA was carried on the march in situations where contact with the enemy was unlikely. When going into combat or at the end of the day’s march when the fortified camp had to be constructed, the FURCAE were grounded. During his basic training, Insubrecus was taught how to construct a FURCA, how to load it, and what a joy it was to hump it over hill and dale at the double-time. The MULI slid a SUDARIUM, a towel, under the right shoulder of the LORICA to cushion the FURCA pole. They referred to the FURCA as their CRUX, cross. The MULI quipped, “A criminal only had to mount the cross once; a grunt every morning.”

SARCINA. A legionary’s pack and basic marching load. The load attached to the FURCA carried by the individual soldier. The pack included a number of items suspended from a FURCA or carrying pole. Items carried in the SARCINA typically included:

LOCULUS. A leather satchel tied to the horizontal FURCA pole. Typical items carried in the LOCULUS were marching rations, usually consisting of BUCCELLATUM, hardtack; SICCATA, jerky; CASEUS, hard cheese; LARDUM, bacon and bacon fat. Extra socks and undies. Some swag carried in a SACCUS, a cloth bag used for foraging, pillaging and anything else that might “fall off a supply wagon.” Leather straps and tools to repair equipment and boots. A LIMA, a file to sharpen sword and knife. A steel brush and oil to lubricate and clean weapons and equipment before an officer spots it.

LODIX (LODICES, pl.) A sleeping blanket. Sometimes tied to the vertical FURCA pole to cushion the shoulder. A SAGUM could be carried wrapped in the blanket or in lieu of the blanket.

ENTRENCHING AND CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT. 

Each soldier carried a DOLABRA (DOLABRAE, pl.) a short-handle pickax which made excellent weapons in a pinch. Spread across the squad were SECURES, long-handled axes; RUTRAE, shovels; SERRAE, saws; FALCES, a tool with a curved blade to clear undergrowth; CORBES, wicker baskets to remove soil. The newbies were usually given the honor of carrying most of these.

COOKING EQUIPMENT. Spread among the squad members were PATERAE (PATERA, sing.) cooking pots; VERUS, skewers (officers took a dim few of cooking meat on the end of a PILUM or GLADIUS); SARTAGINES (SARTAGO, sing.) frying pans. Again, the newbie rule applies.

LAGOENA (LAGOENAE, pl.) canteen, water bottle, or a PELLIS (PELLES, pl) waterskin; a legionary had to carry at least enough water to get through the day’s march; extra waterskins were also carried on the squad mule. A “right thinking” squad of muli would also be humping a few skins of POSCA; see the newbie rule above.

SUDES (SUDIS, sing.) At least two sharpened stakes used as anti-personnel weapons as part of a camp or fortification.

TRIBULI (TRIBULUS, sing.) Caltrops for anti-personnel weapons to defend the camp. TRIBULUS was also the description of a tribune who was particularly hard-assed.

The Ghost of the Maniple

By Insubrecus time, the legion was comprised of ten cohorts of six centuries each. The soldiers of each cohort were equipped the same, the GALEA helmet, oval SCUTUM shield, the short GLADIUS sword, two PILA javelins, chainmail LORICA upper body armor and all the other stuff the soldier needed to march and live in the field. Every century was allocated a mule and a IUGATOR, a teamster-slave, to carry some of the large, heavy stuff, like their squad tents, HASTAE, extra rations and water, etc.

Prior to the Cimbrian war and Marius’ reforms, the primary maneuver unit within a legion was the MANIPULUS, the “handful,” comprised of two centuries of sixty legionaries each, a PRIOR, “forward,” century and a POSTERIOR, “rear,” century. Each century was commanded by a centurion; the centurion commanding the prior century commanded the maniple 

The pre-Marian legion consisted of 

• Ten maniples of 120 first-line HASTATI, “spear men,” new soldiers and recruits armed with swords, shields and javelins; 
• Ten maniples of 120 second-line PRINCIPES, “first-class men,” veterans also armed with swords, shields and javelins;
• Ten half-strength maniples of sixty third-line TRIARI, each experienced heavy infantry armed with spears, swords and heavy shields, the last remnants of the old phalanx formation;
• 1,200 VELITES, lightly armed skirmishers; and
• 300 cavalry.

The pre-Marian legion numbered 4,500 soldiers.

Insubrecus writes that the ghost of the maniple still haunted Caesar’s cohort.

The Caesarian cohort consisted of six centuries of eighty legionaries each. Theoretically, each century was an independent command under the CENTURIO PILUS PRIOR, the “forward spear,” who commanded the first century of the cohort.

According to Insubrecus, the prestige, AUCTORITAS, of the centurions within a cohort reflected the old manipular organization of three different lines of troops organized into a maniple with a prior and posterior century

• PILUS PRIOR and PILUS POSTERIOR: the centurions of the first and second centuries 
• PRINCEPS PRIOR and PRINCEPS POSTERIOR: centurions of the third and fourth centuries 
• HASTATUS PRIOR and HASTATUS POSTERIOR: the centurions of the fifth and sixth centuriae

In Caesar’s time, commanders began referring to the centuries within a cohort by number, but the centurions continued to hold tightly onto their prestige as defined by the ghost of the manipular organization.

LEGION DESIGNATIONS

During Insubrecus time, legions were designated by an ordinal number, identified by totem animal, and assumed a title, a “nickname.”.

Legions were designated by an ordinal number. In the early republic, each consul raised two legions, I, II, III and IV. Legions were not permanent but were reformed each campaign season.

Insubrecus’ legion is designated LEGIO X, “Legion 10.” The numerical designations were not unique but indicated the legion in sequential number of a commander who raised the legion, or in whose army the legion served. So, Insubrecus’ legion was technically LEGIO X CAESARIS, Caesar’s Legion 10.

During Insubrecus’ time, Rome needed a permanent standing army to defend and expand the IMPERIUM, “Roman Power.” Technically, raising a legion required senatorial approval. But powerful men such as Marius, Sulla, Caesar, Pompeius, etc. raised their own legions and may (or may not) have sought senatorial approval later or at all. So, at any point in time, there may have been multiple legions with the same numerical designation depending on who raised the legion, for what purpose, and in which army the legion served.

Legions also had totem animals. 

Since the Marian reforms, all legions possessed the eagle, the sacred bird of Iove, which was displayed on their standard and on their shields along with Iove’s lightning bolts. To lose the AQUILA, the legionary standard, to the enemy was the greatest shame a legion could undergo. Essentially, the legion ceased to exist (Boudica).

Legions also adopted a totem animal or symbol. In the pre-Marian legions, these included the boar, wolf, horse, lion, minitour, Capricorn, etc. … even an elephant! These symbols were displayed on shields, standards, and VEXILLA, pennants. 

By Insubrecus’ time, LEGIO X was still displaying the TAURUS, the bull. However, the display of a totem animal was fading, except of course Iove’s eagle.

Caesar’s legions would sometimes paint the SIDUS IULIUM, “Julian Star,” an eight-point starburst, to evoke Caesar’s luck and the patronage of Venus, from whom gens Iulia reputedly sprung. Insubrecus reports that his VEXILLUM attacking the island of Antirhodos during the Battle of Alexandria painted the SIDUS IULIUM on their shields (The Undead Queen). 

A comet visible from Rome in 44 BCE, after Caesar’s assassination, was used to demonstrate Caesar’s deification.

Then Iupiter, Father, spoke … “Take up Caesar’s spirit from his murdered corpse, and change it into a star, so that the deified Iulius may always look down from his high temple on our capitol and forum.” He had barely finished, when gentle Venus stood in the midst of the Senate, seen by no one, and took up the newly freed spirit of her Caesar from his body and, preventing it from vanishing into the air, carried it towards the glorious stars. As she carried it, she felt it glow and take fire and released it from her breast. It climbed higher than the moon and, drawing behind it a fiery tail, shone as a star (Ovid, Metamorphoses, 15: 475-842).

Legions also acquired “nicknames.” Caesar’s LEGIO X became EQUESTRIS, “horseman,” because Caesar mounted part of the legion to confront Ariovistus at the Hill of Flocks (The Swabian Affair). So, legions became FERRATA, “Iron”; FULMINATA, “Lightning”; VICTRIX, “Victorious” etc. Legions could also be designated by where they originated, GALLICA, HISPANIA, MACEDONIA, etc. Or, by special patronage, CLAUDIA PIA FIDELIS, “Claudius, loyal and Faithful.” 

There was no attempt to normalize the numbering of the legions until Augustus’ reform after the civil wars reducing the number of active legions. Even after the reforms, some numbers were repeated.

For example, there were two LEGIONES X: LEGIO X EQUESTRIS (Equestrian) and LEGIO X FRETENSIS (Of the Straits of Messina or Violent). The duplicated number was not a problem because a legion could be uniquely identified by its number and nickname.

Just when you start to think legion designation was easy … 

Caesar’s LEGIO X was not only known as EQUESTRIS, but also as VENERIA, “Of Venus,” the patron goddess of Caesar’s GENS IULIA. After the legion mutinied against Augustus, it was disbanded and stripped of all titles. It was later reconstituted by combining fragments of other legions and designated LEGIO X GEMINA, the “Twin.”

LEGIONARY RANKS

According to Insubrecus, the army recognized two categories of officer rank: line officers and the flunkies of the current toga-in-charge.

Line officers were those appointed to an officer slot of the legion, those who stood in the line of battle.

CENTURIONES. The Centurions. These were the commanders of the sixty legionary centuries. Insubrecus quips that there was an ironic army saying, “There’s no rank among centurions” (Boudica). Nothing was further from the truth. In a legion there were sixty levels of centurion depending on where the centurion was assigned from Century 1 of Cohort 1 on the top to Century 6 of Cohort 10 at the bottom.

PRIMUS PILUS. The “First Spear.” The centurion commanding Century 1 of Cohort 1, the highest ranking, most experienced, hardest assed centurion in the legion. Insubrecus writes that the PRIMUS PILUS essentially commanded the legion trying to ignore the boss’ legate and tribunes as much as possible. Caesar was smart enough to let this happen advising his legates to stay out of the way of his PRIMI PILI. Had Cotta and Sabinus paid attention to this advice, they and their entire command may not have ended up as bird food.

PRIMI ORDINES. The “First Liners.” The centurions of the first cohort, the most experienced centurions of the legion after the PRIMUS PILUS. They formed the First Spear’s inner circle.

PILI PRIORES. The “Forward Spears.” The senior and commanding centurion of each cohort.

Recognizing and avoiding centurions was one of the first survival skills learned by a legionary trainee. 

First, he was the guy carrying the cudgel, the VITIS, vine staff, for wrapping around the head of any soldier who did not meet his standards … in other words, all! 

Second, his sword was worn on his left hip, not the standard for all other MULI, grunts, the right hip. 

If he was wearing his helmet, he had a transverse crest, ear-to-ear instead of front to back. 

Next, in camp, he would be wearing a leather harness over his LORICA festooned with awards, PHALERAE disks, medallions, and torcs. 

His face, legs and forearms would be covered with battle scars. 

He may be wearing greaves on his lower legs. 

Lastly, he would be displaying a bad attitude about anything and anyone who offended his concept of being a proper Roman soldier … in other words, everyone.

AQUILIFER. “Eagle Carrier.” A soldier who carried the Eagle Standard of the legion. The aquilifer’s position was accordingly one of great AUCTORITAS, “prestige,” immediately below the centurions and above the OPTIONES receiving twice the pay of an ordinary legionary. In the battle line, the AQUILIFER wore a lion’s head over his helmet with the pelt forming a cloak; carried a small circular shield, PARMA, that was strapped on his left forearm since his hands held the legion’s eagle standard.

VEXILLARIUS (or VEXILLIFER) carried the VEXILLUM, the pennant displaying the name and emblem of the legion. The VEXILLUM was fabric banner, hung on a crossbar attached to a pole or lance. VEXILLARIUS wore the head of a lessor totem animal, a wolf or bear, over his helmet with the pelt forming a cloak. He also carried the small circular PARMA strapped to his left forearm.

OPTIONES. “Chosen Ones.” The OPTIO was an experienced soldier chosen by a centurion to be his second-in-command of his century. An OPTIO was stationed at the rear of the century’s combat formation to keep the troops aligned, maintain discipline, and prevent anyone from retreating. He took command of the century in the absence or incapability of the centurion. He also performed a variety of administrative duties, such as strength management, equipment management, etc. According to Insubrecus, the OPTIO was distinguished by two eagle feathers on his helmet, hence his nickname, “featherhead.” Also, he carried a HASTILE, a staff with a large, solid brass knob on one end and a rounded spearhead on the other. The HASTILE was used to keep battle formations straight, keep the MULI focused at the job at hand, and to dissuade anyone from heading to the rear when things got hot. In general, OPTIONES were being groomed for promotion to the rank of centurion. There were sixty OPTIONES in a legion.

TESSERARII “Commanders of the Watch.” The number three man in a century and commander of the guard mount in camp. They were also the OPTIO’s “gofer.” Insubrecus reports that a TESSERARIUS wore a single eagle feather on his helmet.

SIGNIFERI “Standard Bearers.” These were the standard bearers of the cohorts and centuries. Since each century had a SIGNIFER, there were sixty in a legion. The typical century standard was a leaf-shaped spear head; a MANUS, a silver hand, held open to Iove signifying loyalty and devotion; a PHALERA disc identifying the century; wreaths indicating unit citations; all mounted on a poll ending on a round spear head. The SIGNIFER wore an animal-skin cape and a PALMA strapped to his forearm. In the line of battle, the SIGNIFER, stood at the centurion’s right side, so openings for this position were frequent. The SIGNIFER also functioned as the unit treasurer, keeping the pay books and distributing payroll.

CORNICEN. This is a junior officer whose job was to signal to officers and sound orders to the legions. Insubrecus refers to them as “Horn Blowers” or “Tooters.” CORNICENES played an instrument called the CORNU, a brass horn. On the century-level, the CORNICEN stood in the front line on the left hand of the centurion and relayed commands to the other centuries of the cohort, or the century itself. On the legion-level, the CORNICENES stood on the legion’s right flank with the command group relaying orders to the battle lines and the cohorts.

DECANI. “Squad Leaders.” A DECANUS commanded a squad, or tent-group, of eight legionaries. There were 600 DECANI slots in a legion.

DECURIONES were cavalry officers. There were three DECURIONES assigned to each cavalry TURMA. The senior DECURIO commanded the TURMA and the first squadron of ten riders. The two junior DECURIONES commanded the other two squads. Insubrecus writes that, while he was assigned as a DECURIO, he wore a yellow sash to indicate his status. He carried a Gallic longsword, SPATHA, instead of a standard infantry GLADIUS; he also traded in his round cavalry shield, PALMA, for a Gallic oval shield similar to the infantry SCUTUM, for added protection. 

SPECIAL STATUS TROOPS.

PRAEFECTUS CASTRORUM “Prefect of the Camps.” This was an ex PRIMUS PILUS getting close to retirement and given a boost to his pension plan and a social promotion to equestrian at retirement. In Caesar’s army, this was his operational “Number One” alongside Labienus.

PRAEFECTUS “Prefect.” This was a senior centurion given an independent command. Again, a nice boost to the pension along with an equestrian ring.

EVOCATI. “Invited Ones.” These were retired legionaries who re-enlisted. EVOCATII were immune from fatigue details and, even those who did not hold an officer position, held AUCTORITAS just below that of CENTURIONES.

IMMUNES. Soldiers who are immune from fatigue details. These would be soldiers who have special skills and assignments – blacksmiths, fabricators, carpenters, artillery men, hunters, scouts, engineers, medics, etc. – all officers and the EVOCATI.

FRUMENTARII. “Grain Snatchers.” According to Insubrecus, these were legionaries who, either due to injury or age, were no longer fit for full duty. Their apparent purpose was to forage food and livestock in the army’s area of operations. Their secondary mission was to gather information about enemy activity. After the wars, the term was used to describe spies and informers.

Senior Officers, Political Appointees and Other REMFs

The army commander did not necessarily have a military title. He was a civil magistrate who held IMPERIUM, the senate sanctioned power to command an army. During the Gallic wars, Caesar was the PROCONSUL governing the provinces of GALLIA CISALPINA (Northern Italy), GALLICA TRANSALPINA (Southern France), and ILLYRICUM (The eastern coast of the Northern Adriatic). This appointment also granted him IMPERIUM to command legions.

IMPERATOR. This neither meant “Emperor” nor “General,” nor was it an army rank. It was an honorific title. After a great victory, the troops in the field would proclaim their commander IMPERATOR, a distinction necessary for an army commander to apply to the Senate for a Triumph. After being acclaimed IMPERATOR, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his Triumph, when he would relinquish the title. Caesar was acclaimed IMPERATOR in 60 BCE after his campaigns against the Callaeci and Lusitani in Hispania. Since he never celebrated a triumph, becoming consul instead, he technically retained the title.

LEGATUS. “Lieutenant.” This was a position appointed by an official with IMPERIUM in order to delegate authority. Caesar’s appointments were mostly familial, patronage, and political with some exceptions; Titus Labienus for example, was a professional soldier … someone had to run the army. 

LEGATI were typically senatorials, members of a patrician or plebeian GENS whose branch were members of the Roman senate or possessed an officer in the CURSUS HONORUM that possessed the potential of IMPERIUM, such a PRAETER or PROPRAETER; some had campaign experience, others not a clue which end of the sword was pointy. Most of Caesar’s legates were LEGATI MILITUM, “Military Legates,” or LEGATI LEGIONIS, “Legionary Legates.” He assigned some to his legions and others to “special assignments.” For example, Caesar initially placed Crassus in command of a unified cavalry command during his pursuit of the Helvetii, a mistake he quickly rectified (The Helvetian Affair).

Insubrecus notes that Caesar also appointed LEGATI AD MANUM, “personal assistant lieutenants.” For example, Troucillus was Caesar’s ambassador to the Court of the Aedui (The Vampire Affair).

TRIBUNUS “Tribune.” According to Insubrecus, TRIBUNI MILITUM, military tribunes, were not recognized as holding a legionary battleline rank, but were granted their position by the Toga who ran a province and commanded its legions, in other words, another political patronage job. That’s not to say that none of these guys made decent soldiers and made careers in the army, especially younger sons whose equestrian fathers would not bequeath to them the family business, or whose senatorial fathers could not afford to buy them a seat in the senate. TRIBUNI MILITUM came in two flavors: TRIBUNI LATICLAVI, “broad stripers,” tribunes, and TRIBUNI ANGUSTICLAVI “narrow stripers.

TRIBUNI LATICLAVI “Broad-Stripers” – These were tribunes appointed from patrician and plebeian clans of senatorial families recognized by the broad purple stripe on their tunics, togas, and probably their tighty-whities. Theoretically there was one assigned to each legion. These guys were political appointees who were merely dipping their toes into military life as a springboard to run for public office. If they were smart, they were content to serve as gofers for the legates and the army commander. If they weren’t smart, they might venture to tell the PRIMUS PILUS how to do his job … just once! Insubrecus relates the tale of Tertius Gellius Publicola, a broad-striper, who led the Roman cavalry attack against Ariovistus at the Hill of Flocks (The Swabian Affair)

TRIBUNI ANGUSTICLAVI “Narrow-Stripers” These were tribunes appointed from equestrian families recognized by the narrow purple stripe on their tunics. These were the Roman rendition of a “butter bar” or a “Lieutenant Fuzz.” They were in the army until an older brother died, and they could take over the family business. They were useful for carrying messages and REMF jobs. The MULI did their best to ignore them, and most narrow-stripers stayed out of the centurions’ way. Insubrecus’ friend Agrippa proved to be an excellent cavalry officer and army quartermaster. Caecina served as Caesar’s adjutant.

SERVI LEGIONIS.
“Servants of the Legions.” 

Rome practiced slavery based on conquest and poverty, not race or ethnicity other than most SERVI in Caesar’s time were not ethnically Roman and certainly did not possess citizenship. Mostly, they were people conquered by Rome who were enslaved for their resistance and sold to finance the war and to reward the soldiers; they were also Romans who were enslaved for debt or others who had sold themselves into slavery to escape starvation. 

Under Roman law, SERVI were considered HOMINES, human beings. However, they were HOMINES SINE LIBERTATE, humans without freedom or self-determination. They were RES, the chattel of whomever possessed them. The state of SERVITUS descended through the generations; the off-spring of SERVI were SERVI.

Insubrecus reports that the system of SERVITUS in a legion was somewhat different than in civilian society due to the intimacy of the community and the shared dangers. SERVI LEGIONIS were the “property” of the legion. SERVI were acquired by the legion through a voluntary contract. An individual would “sell” himself into slavery for twenty years, usually to escape poverty and starvation. His purchase price would be credited to him, and he would receive a stipend for each year of service. 

SERVI were assigned combat-support roles to free up the MULI, such as headquarter clerks, cooks, supply room orderlies, stable hands, mule teamsters, etc. They were given certain restrictions: obey all commands; never pick up a weapon; do not leave camp without permission; never leave the legion without permission. Except for the weapon prohibition, these were essentially the same conditions under which the MULI lived. SERVI ate the same food, lived in the same conditions, suffered the same hardships and dangers as the MULI with whom they lived. 

At the end of his “hitch,” the SERVUS LEGIONIS would be emancipated in a ceremony of MANUMISSIO VINDICTA, “manumission by the rod,” by the power of the PROCONSUL commanding the legion who held IMPERIUM. In front of the assembled legion, the PRIMUS PILUS of the legion touched the SERVUS with a staff and pronounced the formula of manumission, VINDICTA IMPOSITO EST UT LIBER ESSET; “The rod is laid on so he may be free.” The former slave was granted Roman citizenship, assigned to one of the Roman rural tribes, given the GENS name of the legion’s PROCONSUL, and credited with his accumulated funds. He was then free to go, or he could enlist in his Legion as a MILES, a soldier. Since by this time, the legion was the only life he had known for twenty years, many did.

Other SERVI present with the legion were the servants of the senior officers and were not part of the legionary system. Insubrecus’ friend, Dion, was in a state of SERVITUS when he came to LEGIO X; he was the property of the proconsul, Aulus Gabinius, whom Caesar “borrowed” to complete Insubrecus’ education as part of some political deal. While with LEGIO X, Dion was treated as a SERVUS LEGIONIS and, when he wasn’t tutoring Insubrecus, served as a clerk in Caesar’s headquarters, assisting the always-tipsy Ebrius. During the civil war, when Pompeius and the OPTIMATES rump of the senate fled Rome, leaving Caesar with supreme civil power, he freed Dion as a favor to Insubrecus, who was at that time the centurion in command of his Praetorian detail. Dion became a Roman citizen, a member of GENS IULIA, and part of FAMILIA INSUBRECA.

AUXILIA

AUXILIA, Auxiliaries under Augustus were formal military formations of PELEGRINI, free natives without Roman citizenship organized into cohorts and commanded by a Roman PRAEFECTUS and a cadre of Roman officers. Auxiliary cohorts usually supplied combat specialties not available in the legionary structure, such as cavalry, light infantry, archers, slingers, etc. They supported the legionary efforts by being attached to a legion or providing garrison troops in rear areas and on the flanks. Members of auxiliary units served thirty years and were granted Roman citizenship upon discharge.

As Insubrecus reports, auxiliary troops during Caesar’s Gallic campaigns were not as formalized as they would become. During the Helvetian campaign, Caesar recruited tribal clans to serve as cavalry; the troops followed their tribal chiefs and served the Romans for as long as it made sense to them. Caesar offered the tribes armor, weapons, silver, and booty to serve him. To manage and control these bands, Caesar assigned Roman officers, who typically could not communicate with the troopers and treated them with contempt. This system collapsed when the native auxiliaries went off on their own and led the Romans into a bloody ambush (The Helvetian Affair).

During the Belgian campaign, Caesar brought a number of auxiliary units into the theater of operations: a cohort of native light infantry from Hispania, which served during the Swabian campaign, served as a garrison in Gennava; a cohort of archers and a cohort of Balearic slingers acted as skirmishers for the legions; and a cohort of Numidian horse archers ignored their Roman prefect and did anything they wanted to as long as it promised booty and didn’t require entering the forests which terrified them (Boudica).

Caesar also attempted to formalize the formations of Gallic cavalry forming COHORS PRIMA EQUITATA SEQUANORUM, the First Cavalry Cohort of the Sequani. Since their Roman prefect didn’t speak Gah’el, and the native chiefs refused to speak Latin, command and control was, even at the best of times, questionable (Boudica). At the end of the campaign season, the entire cohort took their Roman armor, horses, and their swag and went home (Death on the Sambre).

A warband of Eceni from Britannia also accompanied Caesar’s army before they marched east into Belgica. Although Agrippa and Insubrecus tagged along, the Eceni totally ignored Caesar’s directions in search of “trophies” (Death on the Sambre).